Loads and Demands
Students assemble governing load combinations per ASCE 7 and identify the controlling combination for the modeled element.
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Computational Engineering · Build, calibrate, verify and validate the numerical model that supports your design decisions.
Deliverable: Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element.
Minimum tables, figures and equations for Loads and Demands
Tables — at least 6
- Table — trial sections or sizes considered, with the capacity of each and the selection decision
- Table — final selected geometry for every element: dimensions, thickness, grade, spacing, elevation
- Table — ultimate limit state check summary: demand, capacity, ratio, pass or fail, governing clause
- Table — serviceability check summary: deflection, crack width, settlement, freeboard or velocity against its limit
- Table — factors of safety achieved against the factor required, per failure mode
- Table — strength, service, fatigue and extreme-event checks with ratios
Figures — at least 5
- Figure — free body diagram of each isolated element, fully labelled with loads, reactions, dimensions and axes
- Figure — shear and moment (or pressure and velocity) diagrams for each force-carrying element
- Figure — dimensioned section or plan of each designed element
- Figure — capacity versus demand plot, interaction diagram, or rating curve as applicable
- Figure — girder, bearing and substructure elevation with dimensions
Equations — at least 7
- Equation — equilibrium equations written out for each free body (sum of forces and sum of moments, or continuity and energy)
- Equation — the internal force relations V(x) and M(x), or the momentum/thrust relation, used to compute each element's demand
- Equation — the resulting demand at the critical section of each element, with numeric substitution
- Equation — the capacity expression for each element type, shown with full numeric substitution and units
- Equation — the sizing criterion that sets the final dimension (for example required area, depth or diameter)
- Equation — each limit state check written as demand over capacity with numbers substituted
- Equation — the factor of safety calculation for each failure mode checked
Number every table and figure (Table 4.x, Figure 4.x), caption it, and refer to it by number in your text. Number displayed equations and show the substitution with units. These counts are minimums — add whatever else your design needs.
Engineering documentation standard — required in every Chapter 4 subsection
These rules are graded on every subsection. Work that misses them is capped on technical accuracy, exhibits, codes and communication, whatever the quality of the prose.
Code and standard references
- Every requirement, factor, coefficient, limit and allowable you apply cites the governing document AND the exact section, article or sub-article number — e.g. ACI 318-19 §22.5.5.1, AISC 360-22 Chapter J, Section J3.6, AASHTO LRFD 10th Ed. Article 3.6.1.2.2, ASCE 7-22 §12.8.1, ASTM D2487, state DOT manual section, local stormwater manual chapter.
- Give the edition or year of every document the first time it appears, then use a consistent short form.
- Where a code equation is used, quote the equation number (e.g. Eq. 22.5.5.1) next to your displayed equation.
- Where you depart from a code provision, state the clause you are departing from and the engineering justification.
- List every code, standard and manual actually used in a Codes and Standards table at the start of the subsection.
Citations for statements
- Every statement of fact, value taken from elsewhere, material property, soil parameter, rainfall depth, unit cost or published method carries an in-text citation (APA) to its source.
- Field and lab data cite the report, boring log, gauge, survey file or test number and its date.
- Manufacturer data cites the product literature and revision date; software results cite the program, version and model file name.
- Uncited assertions are treated as assumptions and must appear in the assumptions table with a justification.
- Every in-text citation resolves to a full entry in the reference list.
Step-by-step calculations
- Structure every calculation the same way: (1) objective, (2) governing code clause, (3) equation in symbolic form with the equation number, (4) definition of each symbol, (5) numerical substitution, (6) result with units, (7) comparison against the limit and the pass/fail statement.
- Show the substitution line — never jump from the formula to the answer.
- Number displayed equations sequentially (Eq. 4.1, 4.2, …) and refer to them by number in the text.
- State the load or flow combination governing each calculation by name.
- Carry consistent significant figures and round only at the reported result; state the rounding convention once.
- Present repetitive element checks in a calculation table with one row per element and the same column order throughout.
Free body diagrams and figures
- Draw a separate free body diagram for each isolated element — no combined sketches standing in for several members.
- Dimension every FBD: span, depth, thickness, cover, eccentricity, embedment, slope, pipe diameter, wall height — with the dimension lines and values shown.
- Label every force, pressure, reaction and moment with its symbol, magnitude and units, and show the sign convention and coordinate axes.
- Show supports and boundary conditions explicitly (pin, roller, fixed, elastic, buoyant, hydrostatic).
- Accompany each FBD with its shear, moment, thrust, pressure or hydraulic grade diagram at the same scale reference.
- Number and caption every figure (Figure 4.x) and refer to it by number in the narrative; add a scale or north arrow to plans.
Units and notation
- Every number in text, tables, figures and equations carries its unit — no bare numbers.
- Use one unit system throughout (US customary or SI); if both appear, give the converted value in parentheses consistently.
- Check dimensional homogeneity of each equation and say so — the units of both sides must match.
- Provide a nomenclature table defining every symbol with its unit.
Checking and verification
- Every calculation is checked by an independent route — hand check against software, alternative method, order-of-magnitude estimate, or a published worked example — and the check is shown, not just claimed.
- Report demand-to-capacity ratios and factors of safety against the required values, with the source clause for each required value.
- Include a verification/checking table: item, method of check, expected, obtained, difference, accept or revise.
- Sanity-check every result (magnitude, direction, plausibility) and state the conclusion.
- Record who checked the work and on what date; flag anything still unverified as an open item.
- State limitations and the range over which the result is valid.
How to complete this section
Do this next: Read the Loads and Demands lecture and the worked example so you know what "Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element." has to contain.
Not sure how to start or how much depth is expected? Read the fully written model example for this deliverable first — it shows the structure, tables and level of justification your advisor grades against.
Modeling & Simulation Center — what this workspace teaches
Build, calibrate, verify and validate the numerical model that supports your design decisions.
- Selecting analysis software for the engineering question (STAAD, SAP2000, ETABS, HEC-RAS, OpenRoads, Civil3D, ArcGIS, MATLAB, Python)
- Model geometry idealization and simplification
- Boundary conditions, supports, restraints and their effect on results
- Load application and load-case management in software
- Mesh and element selection; convergence studies
- Model calibration against measured or benchmark data
- Sensitivity analysis of governing input parameters
- Verification (solving the equations right) vs. validation (solving the right equations)
- Exporting, documenting and archiving model results
End-of-term milestones
- Tuesday, November 17, 2026 — Poster printed and ready. 36 in × 48 in poster finalized and printed one week before the November 24 showcase.
- Wednesday, November 18, 2026 — Final document package uploaded for scoring. Chapters 4–5, calculation package, drawings and appendices uploaded in the app for advisor scoring.
- Wednesday, November 18, 2026 — Poster presentation to faculty and industry. Wednesday poster session — printed 36 in × 48 in poster presented in person; industry reviewers score communication and impact.
- Wednesday, November 25, 2026 — Oral presentation and defense (scored). Scored oral presentation and defense held on Wednesday, November 25.
Loads and Demands
Students assemble governing load combinations per ASCE 7 and identify the controlling combination for the modeled element.
Section B
Engineering story
A real project situation that frames this module
Week 4: loads and demands is the item standing between the team and a reviewable calculation package and framing drawings. Students assemble governing load combinations per ASCE 7 and identify the controlling combination for the modeled element. Review stalls on a single line: the team cannot show the record behind load types.
Comparing an unfactored service load directly against a resistance-factored (φ) capacity. Because aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination, the error does not stay local: it is carried into the calculation package a reviewer must be able to reproduce line by line, and every downstream product inherits it before anyone notices.
Building occupants, erection crews and the structural engineer of record carry the consequence. On this module specifically, the exposure runs through load path tracing from point of application to foundation, and the cost of correction rises every week the calculation package and framing drawings moves closer to issue.
Decisions the engineer must make
- What record establishes load types, and is that record in the project data inventory?
- Does ASCE 7-22 (2022), Sec. 2.3, govern here — and is that the edition adopted by the jurisdiction?
- What is the acceptance criterion for aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination, and was it written before the result was known?
- Is U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) valid over the parameter range this project actually occupies?
- If the check fails, does the team revise the calculation package and framing drawings or raise a change request against the locked baseline?
Photo 1. Field review: the conversation in which a scope, a constraint or a decision is actually settled.
Capstone Studio instructional photograph
Section C
Why this matters
Professional
A licensed engineer defending loads and demands cites ASCE 7-22 (2022), Sec. 2.3, and shows the record behind each input. Your load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. is reviewed the same way — traceability is assessed before arithmetic.
Technical
Load types is what makes U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) usable on this project rather than a formula copied from a reference. Get it wrong and every quantity derived from it is wrong by the same factor.
Safety
The failure mode this module guards against is an element loaded beyond its governing limit state. It reaches people through distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks), which is why the safety check is recorded explicitly here rather than inferred from a passing strength or performance check.
Economic
The calculation package a reviewer must be able to reproduce line by line is priced from this work. Quantities, unit costs and schedule float all trace to load types; a late correction here is paid for as a change order, not a redline.
Environmental
Environmentally, this module fixes embodied carbon in concrete and steel, and the demolition waste of a redesign. Choosing conservatively without justification is not free — the excess shows up as material, energy and land that the project consumes for no measurable gain.
Community
Occupants who rely on the structure performing through its design life and design event inherit whatever this module decides — performance, accessibility, cost of ownership and resilience are set here, not at the ribbon-cutting.
Section D
Learning objectives
By the end of this module you will be able to:
- 1.Interpret load types, using this project's own conditions rather than a textbook case.
- 2.Apply aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination, using this project's own conditions rather than a textbook case.
- 3.Compare load path tracing from point of application to foundation, using this project's own conditions rather than a textbook case.
- 4.Analyze distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks), using this project's own conditions rather than a textbook case.
- 5.Compute the governing quantity from U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R), with a unit audit on every term.
- 6.Apply ASCE 7-22 (2022), Sec. 2.3, and cite the section that governs your acceptance decision.
- 7.Reproduce the worked example for a beam carries D = 20 kip, L = 30 kip, and S = 8 kip and defend the interpretation of the result.
- 8.Produce load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. at a standard the plan reviewer at the building department would accept without a second revision cycle.
Section E
Instructional content
Full lecture notes with figures and governing equations
Reading loads and demands as a practising engineer
Students assemble governing load combinations per ASCE 7 and identify the controlling combination for the modeled element. That single sentence hides the substance of the module: load types, and aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination. Both must be established from project evidence before anything downstream is credible.
In structural engineering, this work is the input to the calculation package and framing drawings. Load path tracing from point of application to foundation — which is why this page asks you to record the source of every quantity, not just its value. The calculation package a reviewer must be able to reproduce line by line depends on it.
- Load types: dead, live, snow, wind, seismic, and their determination sources
- ASCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination
- Load path tracing from point of application to foundation
- Distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks)
Photo 1. Reading loads and demands as a practising engineer in practice — Field review: the conversation in which a scope, a constraint or a decision is actually settled.
Capstone Studio instructional photograph
Governing relationships and how they are applied here
The relationships below govern loads and demands. U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) — each is valid only inside the parameter range this project occupies, so state that range before substituting.
ASCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination sets the values you place into these expressions. Any code-prescribed factor must match ASCE 7-22 (2022); a factor lifted from a different edition silently changes the answer.
U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
- U = required factored strength
- D = dead load effect
- L = live load effect
- Lr, S, R = roof live, snow, rain load effects
Photo 2. Governing relationships and how they are applied here in practice — Field review: the conversation in which a scope, a constraint or a decision is actually settled.
Capstone Studio instructional photograph
Constraints, adopted standards and the safety case for loads and demands
ASCE 7-22 (2022), Sec. 2.3, governs this module: LRFD basic load combinations governing this module
The safety case is explicit here. The failure mode is an element loaded beyond its governing limit state; the people exposed are building occupants, erection crews and the structural engineer of record; the control that prevents it is distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks) together with an independent check by someone who did not perform the work.
- Controlling criterion for this module: load types.
- Adopted reference: ASCE 7-22 (2022) — cite Sec. 2.3 by number.
- Failure mode guarded: an element loaded beyond its governing limit state.
- Evidence produced: Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element..
Photo 3. Constraints, adopted standards and the safety case for loads and demands in practice — Field review: the conversation in which a scope, a constraint or a decision is actually settled.
Capstone Studio instructional photograph
Where this method stops being valid
The worked example — a beam carries D = 20 kip, L = 30 kip, and S = 8 kip — holds only while its assumptions hold. This factored value — not the unfactored 58 kip service sum — is compared against the reduced (φ) member capacity in the strength check; using the wrong pairing of factored demand with unreduced capacity, or vice versa, invalidates the check. Outside that envelope the arithmetic still returns a number, and the number is wrong in a way no unit check will catch.
For this project, the boundary you are most likely to push is distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks). If you cross it, say so in writing, bound the error, and carry the limitation into your results chapter. A disclosed limitation is professional practice; a silent extrapolation is not.
Photo 4. Where this method stops being valid in practice — Structural framing of a pedestrian bridge: members, connections and the load path a designer must trace.
Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
Section F
Engineering workflow
Steps
- 1. Assemble the inputs this module needs — load types; aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling… — each with a unit and a source record.
- 2. Confirm ASCE 7-22 (2022) is the adopted edition and locate Sec. 2.3.
- 3. State the assumptions and the acceptance criterion for load types.
- 4. Evaluate U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) term by term, carrying one extra significant figure.
- 5. Test the result against load path tracing from point of application to foundation.
- 6. Audit units and run an order-of-magnitude check by hand before the number leaves your desk.
- 7. Obtain an independent check from a teammate who did not perform the work, and record their name and date.
- 8. Assemble load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. and submit it to the plan reviewer at the building department for review.
Decision points
- Is every input behind load types traceable? If not — stop and collect the record.
- Does the result satisfy aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination? If not — revise the work, never the criterion.
- Would the correction change the calculation package a reviewer must be able to reproduce line by line? If yes — raise a change-control request before proceeding.
- Have you ruled out the most common error on this module — comparing an unfactored service load directly against a resistance-factored (φ) capacity?
Quality checklist
- Documented: load types
- Documented: aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination
- Documented: load path tracing from point of application to foundation
- ASCE 7-22 Sec. 2.3 cited by section number
- Units audited on every expression
- Acceptance criterion recorded before the result
- Independent check signed and dated
- Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. attached and named per the course convention
Section H
Interactive visualization
Loads and Demands — step-through
Advance one frame at a time. Each frame adds one engineering decision to the previous state.
Step 1 of 6
Establish dead, live, and environmental load magnitudes from the design inputs.
Section I
Applicable codes and standards
ASCE 7-22
2022 · Sec. 2.3
Adopted design/analysis reference governing this module.
Relevance: LRFD basic load combinations governing this module
Reference the section number and edition in your calculation package. Do not reproduce code text.
Section J
Worked examples
Full engineering solution format
Section K
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
- Comparing an unfactored service load directly against a resistance-factored (φ) capacity.
- Missing a load combination that governs for uplift or reversal cases (e.g., wind combinations with 0.9D).
- Treating load types as a given instead of establishing it from a project record.
- Producing load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. without showing how aSCE 7 LRFD load combination enumeration and identifying the controlling combination was satisfied.
- Substituting into U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) outside the range where it is valid, and reporting the number anyway.
- Missing distinguishing service-level loads (serviceability checks) from factored loads (strength checks), which is exactly the path to an element loaded beyond its governing limit state.
- Reporting model output without documenting mesh, boundary conditions, solver settings or convergence.
- Calibrating a model until it matches expectation, then presenting the match as validation.
- Leaving boundary conditions undefined so the model is not reproducible by an independent checker.
- Using inputs that no field record, laboratory report, or published source supports.
- Stopping at output and skipping verification — an unverified number is not an engineering result.
Section L
Industry case study
Documented failure related to loads and demands
A constructed civil works project where this module's decision was made incorrectly or skipped.
Official findings
- Published investigation identified a breakdown between analysis assumption and constructed condition.
Field observations
- The controlling assumption was documented nowhere in the design record.
- No independent check existed at the stage where the error entered the work.
Engineering interpretation
- Interpretation below is student analysis for instructional purposes, not an official finding.
- Map the failure to a step in your own workflow and state where your process would have caught it.
Lessons learned
- Document the assumption, then have someone else check it before it becomes construction.
Source: Summarize the published investigation; cite it in your reference list. Do not reproduce copyrighted report text.
Section M
FE Civil exam connection
Handbook FE Reference Handbook — structural engineering section (record the section number from your handbook edition).
Exam topics
Handbook formulas
- U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
- U = 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Weak results here feed your FE Civil Academy weak-area queue for targeted practice.
Question 1 of 2
Score: 0/2In loads and demands, which item must be established BEFORE the analysis is run?
Section N
Apply it to your project — Loads and Demands
Complete this using your own capstone project data. Every field is saved to your project record and routed to your advisor with this module's submission.
Inputs and sources
Every value needs a traceable source.
| Quantity | Value | Unit | Source / record |
|---|
Assumptions and consequences
| Assumption | Basis | Consequence if wrong |
|---|
Self-check before submission
Section O
Design challenge
Consulting challenge — Loads and Demands
Your firm has been retained to deliver the loads and demands scope for a municipal client on a compressed schedule. Produce the technical position your firm would defend at a public meeting.
Client request: The client wants a defensible recommendation, the basis of design, and an honest statement of what remains unresolved.
Constraints
- Adopted local code edition governs; no exceptions without written variance.
- Budget and schedule are fixed; scope changes require change control.
- Public safety and accessibility requirements are non-negotiable.
Deliverables
- One-page basis of design
- Supporting calculation extract
- Risk and limitation statement
Evaluation
- Technical correctness
- Standard compliance
- Clarity of engineering judgment
- Honest treatment of uncertainty
Section P
Documentation workspace
Write the report section for this module in the academic editor
Section Q
File uploads
Accepted: PDF, DOCX, XLSX, CSV, PNG, JPG, ZIP
No files uploaded yet.
Section R
Deliverable and advisor review
Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element.
Submissions route to your assigned faculty advisor and are scored independently by faculty and administrator rubrics.
Reflection
What was the hardest engineering judgment in this module, and how did you resolve it?
Section S
ABET outcome mapping
Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. with advisor review and dual scoring.
Assessment: Faculty rubric score and administrator rubric score on this module's submission.
Rubric: Technical analysis · Target: 70% of students at or above 'meets expectations'.
Load combination table identifying the controlling case for the modeled element. with advisor review and dual scoring.
Assessment: Faculty rubric score and administrator rubric score on this module's submission.
Rubric: Technical analysis · Target: 70% of students at or above 'meets expectations'.
Section T
References and further study
ASCE 7-22 (2022)
Adopted reference — cite section numbers, do not reproduce text.
Loads and Demands — instructor design procedure
Course template for the calculation package format expected in the final report appendix.
NCEES FE Reference Handbook
Locate the equations used here and note the handbook section for exam recall.
Advisor meeting agenda item
Bring the unresolved decision from this module to your next weekly advisor meeting.