Sampling and Monitoring

Environmental Engineering · FE Reference Handbook section

Environmental Engineering

12 formulas

10 exam-style examples

~60 min

All Environmental Engineering lectures

Learning objectives

What you must be able to do before leaving this section.

This chapter section covers Sampling and Monitoring within Environmental Engineering. Read it the way you would read a textbook chapter: the theory first so the relations mean something, then every equation with its use and its trap, then 10 fully worked examples with the arithmetic shown line by line, and finally a self-check you should be able to answer without notes.

Explain, in your own words, what sampling and monitoring describes physically and when it applies.
State every one of the 12 relations the handbook lists here and name each symbol with its unit.
Select the correct relation from the wording of an exam stem within 20 seconds.
Carry a complete solution from givens to a "most nearly" answer with the correct unit.
Recognise the distractors generated by the unit trap: mg/L × MGD × 8.34 = lb/day is the single most used conversion.

Lecture

Why this section exists. Sampling and Monitoring is the part of Environmental Engineering that lets you connect a treatment unit or receiving water body to a number you can defend. Before any equation is useful you must be able to picture the physical situation it describes; the schematic below is that picture.

How the theory is built. The handbook prints results, not derivations. Each relation in this section comes from one governing principle applied to the idealised system: state the principle, impose the stated assumptions, and the printed equation follows. Knowing which assumption each relation rests on is what lets you reject a wrong answer choice in seconds.

How it is examined. Items from this page are written as a mass balance across one reactor or one unit process. Roughly two thirds are direct substitution, one third require one intermediate quantity from a neighbouring relation, and a small number are conceptual — testing whether you know the assumption, not the arithmetic.

The habit that earns the points. Unit discipline. mg/L × MGD × 8.34 = lb/day is the single most used conversion. Every relation below is dimensionally consistent only when that rule is honoured, and the distractor set is deliberately built from candidates who ignored it. Write the unit next to every number you substitute, every time.

How to study this page. Read the theory, then cover the formula cards and try to reproduce each relation from its description. Then work the examples with the solution hidden, revealing one line at a time. Finish with the self-check questions; if you cannot answer one, return to the matching formula card.

Aeration basin at a wastewater treatment plant with churning aerated water and walkways. — Photo 1. Where this shows up in practice: sampling and monitoring.
Capstone Studio instructional photograph

Environmental Engineering — Sampling and Monitoring: reference schematic for orienting the symbols used in this section.

Theory, developed

Read this before the equations — it is what makes them memorable.

The physical situation

Every item from this section describes a treatment unit or receiving water body. Sketch it before you compute — a labelled sketch with the givens on it converts a wordy stem into a solvable problem and exposes the quantity the examiner left out on purpose.

The governing principle

The 12 relations on this page are consequences of one principle applied to that idealised system. Identify which quantity is conserved, balanced, or defined, and the correct equation follows without memorisation.

Assumptions and limits of validity

Each printed relation carries silent assumptions — linearity, steady state, uniformity, small deformation, or standard conditions, depending on the subject. Conceptual exam items are written by violating exactly one of these, so read the sentence above the equation as carefully as the equation itself.

Solution procedure you should automate

1) Read the last sentence of the stem to identify the requested quantity. 2) Locate the relation on this page whose left-hand side is that quantity. 3) Tabulate the givens with units and mark the missing symbol. 4) If a symbol is missing, find the one relation that produces it. 5) Rearrange symbolically, substitute once, evaluate, and round only at the end.

Notation used in this section

Power	Quantity produced by "Power = 1– (Probability of a Type II error) = 1 – β = probability of not making a Type II error." — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.
CV	Quantity produced by "CV = (100 * s)/ x" — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.
s	Quantity produced by "s = standard deviation of sample" — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.
x	Quantity produced by "x = sample average" — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.
µS	Quantity produced by "µS = mean of pollutant concentration of the site of the contamination" — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.
µB	Quantity produced by "µB = mean of pollutant concentration of the site before contamination or the noncontaminated area (background)" — read its definition and unit from the handbook line directly above the equation.

Handbook notes for this section

Definitions and conditions exactly as the handbook states them.

Data Quality Objectives (DQO) for Sampling Soils and Solids
Confidence Minimum Detectable Relative
Preliminary site investigation 70–80 90–95 10–30
Emergency clean-up 80–90 90–95 10–20
Planned removal and
90–95 90–95 10–20
remedial response operations
EPA Document "EPA/600/8–89/046" Soil Sampling Quality Assurance User's Guide, Chapter 7.
where
where
Number of Samples Required in a One-Sided One-Sample t-Test to Achieve a Minimum
Coefficient of Confidence Minimum Detectable Relative Difference
Variation Power Level (%)
(%) (%) (%)
5 10 20 30 40
15 95 99 145 39 12 7 5
95 99 26 8 5 3
90 78 21 6 3 3
80 57 15 4 2 2
90 99 120 32 11 6 5
95 79 21 7 4 3
90 60 16 5 3 2
80 41 11 3 2 1
80 99 94 26 9 6 5

Core formulas for this FE topic

Definitions, applicability, units, assumptions and worked examples for each relation.

Worked exam-style examples

The four ways this section is written on the real exam — thoughts first, then equations, then substitution.

Example 1

Completely mixed stream blending — Sampling and Monitoring

A stream flowing 25.0 cfs at 8.0 mg/L receives a discharge of 12.0 cfs at 55 mg/L. Find the fully mixed concentration.

Given

Q₁ = 25.0 cfs, C₁ = 8.0 mg/L
Q₂ = 12.0 cfs, C₂ = 55 mg/L

Find

Mixed concentration C

Start with the thinking

Mass in equals mass out at steady state.
Weight by flow, never a simple average.

Step-by-step solution

Mass balance
$Q_{1} C_{1} + Q_{2} C_{2} = (Q_{1} + Q_{2}) C$
Loads
$25.0 (8.0) = 200.0; 12.0 (55) = 660.0$
Total flow
$25.0 + 12.0 = 37.0 c f s$
Solve
$C = (200.0 + 660.0) /37.0 = 23.24 m g / L$

Answer: C ≈ 23.2 mg/L

Why the other options are there

31.5 mg/L (unweighted average)
63.0 mg/L (concentrations added)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 2

BOD exerted after t days — Sampling and Monitoring

A wastewater has ultimate BOD L₀ = 315 mg/L and k = 0.24 /day (base e). How much BOD is exerted in 6 days?

Given

L₀ = 315 mg/L
k = 0.24 /day
t = 6 days

Find

BOD_t

Start with the thinking

BOD exertion is first-order and approaches L₀ asymptotically.
Check whether k is base e or base 10.

Step-by-step solution

First-order
$B O D_{t} = L_{0} (1 - e^{(} - k t))$
Exponent
$k t = 0.24 (6) = 1.44$
Exponential
$e^{(} - 1.44) = 0.2369$
Substituting
$B O D_{t} = 315 (1 - 0.2369) = 240.4 m g / L$
Remaining
$L_{0} - B O D_{t} = 74.6 m g / L$

Answer: BOD_6 ≈ 240.4 mg/L

Why the other options are there

75 mg/L (remaining reported as exerted)
453.6 mg/L (linear decay assumed)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 3

Hydraulic detention time in a tank — Sampling and Monitoring

A treatment tank holds 195,679 gal and treats 2.0 MGD. Find the hydraulic detention time.

Given

V = 195,679 gal
Q = 2.0 MGD

Find

Detention time θ

Start with the thinking

θ = V/Q with consistent volume units.
Express the answer in hours for design comparison.

Step-by-step solution

Detention
$θ = V / Q$
Flow in gal/day
$2.0 \times 1 0^{6} = 2, 000, 000 g a l / d a y$
Substituting
$θ = 195679/2, 000, 000 = 0.0978 d a y$
Convert
$θ = 0.0978 (24) = 2.35 h r$

Answer: θ ≈ 2.35 hr

Why the other options are there

0.098 hr (day/hour conversion missed)
10.22 hr (ratio inverted)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 4

Chemical feed rate from dosage — Sampling and Monitoring

A plant treating 3.1 MGD requires a 9.0 mg/L dose. What is the daily chemical demand in pounds?

Given

Q = 3.1 MGD
Dose = 9.0 mg/L
8.34 lb/gal

Find

lb/day of chemical

Start with the thinking

The 8.34 factor converts mg/L·MGD to lb/day.
Adjust for purity if the product is not 100% active.

Step-by-step solution

Feed
$l b / d a y = Q (M G D) \times d ose (m g / L) \times 8.34$
Substituting
$l b / d a y = 3.1 (9.0) (8.34)$
Evaluate — 232.7 lb/day
At 65% available strength — 358.0 lb/day of product

Answer: ≈ 232.7 lb/day

Why the other options are there

27.9 lb/day (8.34 omitted)
3.35 lb/day (factor divided)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 5

Converting ppm to mg/m³ — Sampling and Monitoring

A stack gas contains 23.0 ppm of a compound with molecular weight 44 g/mol at 25 °C and 1 atm. Express the concentration in mg/m³.

Given

C = 23.0 ppm
MW = 44 g/mol
Molar volume = 24.45 L/mol

Find

Concentration in mg/m³

Start with the thinking

ppm by volume needs the molar volume to become a mass concentration.
24.45 L/mol applies at 25 °C; use 22.4 at 0 °C.

Step-by-step solution

Conversion
$m g / m^{3} = pp m \times M W /24.45$
Substituting
$m g / m^{3} = 23.0 (44) /24.45$
Evaluate — 41.39 mg/m³
Reverse check
$pp m = 41.39 (24.45) /44 = 23.0 ✓$

Answer: ≈ 41.4 mg/m³

Why the other options are there

12.8 mg/m³ (ratio inverted)
45.2 mg/m³ (0 °C molar volume used)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 6

First-order removal in a CSTR versus a plug-flow reactor — Sampling and Monitoring

A reactor of volume 4,951 m³ treats 1.25 m³/s carrying 166 mg/L of a contaminant that decays first-order with k = 0.30 h⁻¹. Compute the hydraulic residence time and the effluent concentration if the tank behaves as a CSTR and as a plug-flow reactor.

Given

V = 4,951 m³
Q = 1.25 m³/s
C₀ = 166 mg/L
k = 0.30 h⁻¹

Find

τ, CSTR effluent and PFR effluent

Start with the thinking

The mass balance for steady state is: in − out − reaction = 0.
For the same volume, plug flow always outperforms a single completely mixed tank for first-order kinetics.

Step-by-step solution

Formula
$τ = V / Q$
Substituting
$τ = 4951/1.25 = 3, 961 s = 1.100 h$
Formula (CSTR)
$C = C_{0} / (1 + k τ)$
Substituting
$C = 166/ (1 + 0.30 \times 1.100) = 124.8 m g / L$
Formula (PFR)
$C = C_{0} e^{(} - k τ)$
Substituting
$C = 166 e^{(} - 0.30 \times 1.100) = 119.3 m g / L$
Comparison — plug flow removes 28.1% versus 24.8% for the CSTR

Answer: τ = 1.10 h; C_CSTR = 124.8 mg/L, C_PFR = 119.3 mg/L

Why the other options are there

111.2 mg/L (linear decay assumed)
124.8 mg/L for both reactors

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 7

Activated sludge F/M ratio, aeration time and sludge production — Sampling and Monitoring

An activated sludge plant treats 3,515 m³/d with an influent BOD of 224 mg/L, effluent BOD 25 mg/L, MLSS 2,223 mg/L, and an aeration basin volume of 4,857 m³. With Y = 0.45 mg VSS/mg BOD, k_d = 0.05 d⁻¹ and an SRT of 19 days, compute the F/M ratio, hydraulic detention time and daily sludge production.

Given

Q = 3,515 m³/d
S₀ = 224 mg/L, S = 25 mg/L
X = 2,223 mg/L, V = 4,857 m³
Y = 0.45, k_d = 0.05 d⁻¹, SRT = 19 d

Find

F/M ratio, detention time τ and sludge wasted per day

Start with the thinking

F/M compares the food entering daily with the microbial mass held in the basin; conventional plants run near 0.2–0.5 d⁻¹.
Endogenous decay reduces net sludge yield as the SRT lengthens.

Step-by-step solution

Formula
$F / M = Q S_{0} / (V X)$
Substituting
$F / M = 3515 (224) / (4857 \times 2223) = 0.073 d^{- 1}$
Formula
$τ = V / Q$
Substituting
$τ = 4857/3515 = 1.3818 d = 33.16 h$
Formula
$P_{x} = Y Q (S_{0} - S) / (1 + k_{d} \cdot S R T)$
Substituting
$P_{x} = 0.45 (3515) (224 - 25) / (1 + 0.05 \times 19) m g / d$
Evaluate
$P_{x} = 161.4 k g V S S / d a y$

Answer: F/M = 0.07 d⁻¹, τ = 33.2 h, sludge = 161.4 kg/d

Why the other options are there

F/M = 354.2 (basin volume omitted)
P_x = 314.8 kg/d (decay term ignored)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 8

Circular clarifier overflow rate, detention time and Stokes settling — Sampling and Monitoring

A circular clarifier 20 m in diameter and 3.5 m deep treats 6,044 m³/d. Compute the surface overflow rate, the detention time and the weir loading rate, then check whether a 50 µm particle (SG = 2.65) settles out by Stokes' law.

Given

Q = 6,044 m³/d
D = 20 m, depth = 3.5 m
d_p = 50 µm, ρ_s = 2650 kg/m³
μ = 0.001 Pa·s

Find

SOR, detention time, weir loading and the Stokes settling velocity

Start with the thinking

An ideal settling basin removes every particle whose settling velocity exceeds the overflow rate — depth does not matter for removal, only for detention.
Stokes' law applies to the laminar (small particle) regime.

Step-by-step solution

Surface area
$A = (π /4) (20)^{2} = 314.2 m^{2}$
Formula
$S O R = Q / A$
Substituting — SOR = 6044/314.2 = 19.24 m³/m²·d
Formula — τ = V/Q = A·h/Q
Substituting
$τ = 1, 100/6044 = 4.37 h$
Formula
$w e i r l o a d in g = Q / (π D)$
Substituting — 6044/(π × 20) = 96.2 m³/m·d
Formula
$v_{s} = g (ρ_{s} - ρ) d^{2} / (18 μ)$
Substituting
$v_{s} = 9.81 (1650) (5.0 e - 5)^{2} / (18 \times 0.001) = 194.2 m / d$
Compare
$v_{s} = 194.2 m / d > S O R = 19.24 m / d \to p a r t i c l e i sr e m o v e d$

Answer: SOR = 19.2 m/d, τ = 4.4 h, weir loading = 96 m³/m·d, v_s = 194.2 m/d

Why the other options are there

SOR = 27.5 m/d (side area used)
v_s computed with the diameter unsquared

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 9

Series particulate control: overall collection efficiency and emission rate — Sampling and Monitoring

A stack gas stream of 58 m³/s carries 17 g/m³ of particulate. It passes a cyclone at 76% efficiency followed by a fabric filter at 97.5% efficiency. Compute the concentration after each device, the overall efficiency, and the emission rate in kg/h.

Given

Q = 58 m³/s
C_in = 17 g/m³
η₁ = 0.76
η₂ = 0.975

Find

Intermediate and final concentrations, overall η and kg/h emitted

Start with the thinking

Efficiencies in series multiply as penetrations (1 − η), they never simply add.
The overall penetration is the product of the individual penetrations.

Step-by-step solution

Formula
$C_{1} = C_{i} n (1 - η_{1})$
Substituting
$C_{1} = 17 (1 - 0.76) = 4.080 g / m^{3}$
Formula
$C_{2} = C_{1} (1 - η_{2})$
Substituting
$C_{2} = 4.080 (1 - 0.975) = 0.1020 g / m^{3}$
Formula
$η_{o} v er a l l = 1 - (1 - η_{1}) (1 - η_{2})$
Substituting
$η = 1 - 0.240 \times 0.0250 = 0.99400 = 99.400$
Formula
$e mi ss i o n = C_{2} Q$
Substituting
$0.1020 g / m^{3} \times 58 m^{3} / s \times 3600 s / h \div 1000 = 21.298 k g / h$

Answer: C_out = 0.1020 g/m³, η = 99.40%, emission = 21.30 kg/h

Why the other options are there

η = 173.5% (efficiencies added)
3,550 kg/h (uncontrolled rate)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Example 10

Landfill volume required for a community's solid waste — Sampling and Monitoring

A community of 232,945 people generates 2.8 kg/person/day of MSW and diverts 35% through recycling. Compacted in place at 679 kg/m³ with 10% additional daily cover volume, find the airspace needed for 12 years.

Given

Population = 232,945
Generation = 2.8 kg/cap/d
Diversion = 0.35
Compacted density = 679 kg/m³
Cover = 10%, design life 12 yr

Find

Annual and total landfill airspace

Start with the thinking

Only the landfilled fraction consumes airspace — diverted material is subtracted first.
Daily cover soil is real volume and must be added to the waste volume.

Step-by-step solution

Formula
$l an df i l l e d ma ss = p o p u l a t i o n \times r a t e \times (1 - d i v er s i o n)$
Substituting
$232945 (2.8) (1 - 0.35) = 423, 960 k g / d a y$
Formula
$V = ma ss / d e n s i t y$
Substituting
$V = 423, 960/679 = 624.4 m^{3} / d a y$
Annual with cover
$624.4 \times 365 \times 1.10 = 250, 692 m^{3} / y r$
Design life
$250, 692 \times 12 = 3, 008, 305 m^{3}$

Answer: ≈ 250,692 m³/yr, or 3,008,305 m³ over 12 years

Why the other options are there

4,207,419 m³ (diversion and cover ignored)
1,856,944,362 m³ (mass reported as volume)

Reference: FE Reference Handbook — Environmental Engineering → Sampling and Monitoring

Self-check

Answer these without notes before moving on.

Without looking, state the relation on this page whose left-hand side is the quantity most often requested, and name every symbol in it.
Which assumption, if violated, makes the main relation of this section invalid?
Given a treatment unit or receiving water body, what is the first quantity you would compute, and why that one first?
Which unit conversion in this subject most often produces a wrong answer choice, and what is its numerical factor?
Rework Example 1 above from the givens alone, without reading the solution lines.

Chapter summary

Sampling and Monitoring contains 12 relations; you must be able to find this page in under 15 seconds.
Exam style: a mass balance across one reactor or one unit process.
Unit rule: mg/L × MGD × 8.34 = lb/day is the single most used conversion.
Work the 10 examples until the solution path, not the answer, is automatic.

Common traps in this section

mg/L × MGD × 8.34 = lb/day is the single most used conversion
Answering the intermediate quantity instead of the quantity requested.
Rounding intermediate values before the final step.
Using a relation from an adjacent handbook section that shares a symbol.
Skipping the sketch — most lost points on this page start with a misread geometry.